In 1930, Ernest Everett Just, an African American biologist, became the first American to be invited to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, Germany where several Nobel Prize winners conducted research.

Just had recognized the fundamental role of the cell surface in the development of organisms, and advocated the study of whole cells under normal conditions, rather than simply breaking them apart in a laboratory setting.

Just was among the first African Americans to receive a doctoral degree at a major university. Despite many outstanding achievements as a student and biologist, Just was unable to obtain an academic appointment that would enable him to take advantage of his skills as a scientist. He moved to Europe, returning to the United States when World War II broke out and dying prematurely in 1941. Just’s magnum opus was entitled The Biology of the Cell Surface, which critiqued the focus among cell biologists on the nucleus.